Brand personality: a theoretical approach in the Latin American international trade scenario

Personalidad de marca: un acercamiento teórico en el escenario del comercio internacional latinoamericano

López Rodríguez, Campo Elías; Moscoso Aldana, Rony Alexis; Ramírez Lozada, Natalia Andrea; Alvarado Cárdenas, Wendy Jhoana

Campo Elías López Rodríguez

clopezr@ecci.edu.co

ECCI Colombia

Rony Alexis Moscoso Aldana

moscoso.rony@ecci.edu.co

ECCI Colombia

Natalia Andrea Ramírez Lozada

nataliaa.ramirezl@ecci.edu.co

ECCI Colombia

Wendy Jhoana Alvarado Cárdenas

wendyj.alvaradoc@ecci.edu.co

ECCI Colombia

REVISTA INVESTIGACIÓN, DESARROLLO EDUCACIÓN, SERVICIO, TRABAJO

Fundación de Estudios Superiores Monseñor Abraham Escudero Montoya, Colombia

ISSN-e: 2745-1194

Periodicity: Semestral

vol. 2, no. 1, 2022

revista.cientifica@fundes.edu.co

Received: 09 November 2021

Accepted: 19 December 2021

URL: http://portal.amelica.org/ameli/journal/640/64031756403175008/

Non-profit publishing model to preserve the academic and open nature of scientific communication

ePub generated from XML JATS4R

Abstract: By way of reflection, this research aims to analyze the development of the theoretical proposals of the concept of brand personality that have had an impact on the Latin American international trade scenario. It is relevant to highlight that brand personality refers to the set of human characteristics associated with brands. A study was developed with a hermeneutic approach through a descriptive documentary analysis. The main results include brand personality models proposed for activities related to international trade in Latin America, such as the automotive market, food and beverages, drugstore chains, and North American commercial subsidiaries with commercial presence in the region. It is concluded that for Latin American international trade it is relevant to build a set of brand personality dimensions and traits that favor the consolidation of branding strategies; however, it should be taken into account that the perception of such model should be in accordance with the sociocultural traits of customers, in order to strengthen symbolic and emotional relationships between companies and consumers, thus sustaining the adequate market orientation that contemporary organizations should have.

Keywords: Brand personality, branding, international trade, internationalization.

Resumen: A manera reflexiva, esta investigación pretende analizar el desarrollo de las propuestas teóricas del concepto de personalidad de marca que han tenido incidencia en el escenario del comercio internacional latinoamericano. Es relevante resaltar que la personalidad de marca hace referencia al conjunto de características humanas asociadas a las marcas. Se desarrolló un estudio con un enfoque hermenéutico a través de un análisis descriptivo de tipo documental. Dentro de los principales resultados sobresalen modelos de personalidad de marca propuestos para actividades relacionadas con el comercio internacional en Latinoamérica, tales como el mercado automotriz, alimentos y bebidas, cadenas de farmacias, y filiales comerciales norteamericanas con presencia comercial en la región. Se concluye que para el comercio internacional latinoamericano es relevante construir un conjunto de dimensiones y rasgos de personalidad de marca que favorezca la consolidación de las estrategias de branding; sin embargo, se debe tener en cuenta que la percepción de dicho modelo debe ser acorde a los rasgos socioculturales de los clientes, esto para fortalecer relaciones simbólicas y emocionales entre empresas y consumidores, sustentando así la adecuada orientación al mercado que deben tener las organizaciones contemporáneas.

Palabras clave: Personalidad de marca, branding, comercio internacional, internacionalización.

Introduction

The concept of brand personality has been of interest to researchers due to the relevance of this asset to consumers, being an element that influences purchase intention (Toldos & Guerrero, 2013). Brand personality is a set of human characteristics that are associated to a company and directly to a brand, being part of the symbolic perspective made by consumers (Aaker 1997). Escobar-Farfán, Mateluna-Sánchez & Araya-Castillo (2016) define brand personality as a dimension or facet of identity where human characteristics are attributed to a set of brands.

Different brands recognized in the market must strive to differentiate themselves from their competitors through the creation and development of a distinctive brand. Companies use brand personality theories to know the personality traits that define and differentiate them, and with this evaluate the positioning they have within the consumers that are part of their target market (Araya-Castillo & Escobar-Farfán, 2015). Given that consumers are undergoing a change of mentality in which they demand forms and alternatives of consumption, companies are forced to replicate models where they include user information to be able to satisfy needs through brand identification (Quintero, 2018).

According to Diaz, Rodriguez & Lujan (2019) Latin America has presented a growth and business development, moderate given that the political, economic, technological and methodologies that are applied around the world become an attempt to change relations with the international economy and achieve a stable and sustainable development in the market. Aaker's (1997) brand personality model was born and applied in the United States, the theory can be implemented in the development of Latin American international trade, but it should be taken into account that the market and consumers are not the same in the two geographical scenarios (Pérez, 2019). Therefore, López-Rodríguez, et al (2020) explain that, to talk about branding, a company must understand nature of globalization not only economically but culturally.

Ahmad & Thyagaraj (2014) describe that being able to identify cultural differences between countries in terms of brand personality would allow increasing the competitive advantages of organizations in global markets in terms of their brand strategies, similar to what Merino (2008) stated that there is an important effort, from academia, as well as marketing managers, to obtain a competitive advantage in global markets, based on brand differentiation through symbolic meaning, leveraging this from brand personality.

According to López & Santillán (2019) brands must make a coherent relationship with cultural meanings so that the value system between brands and consumers is strategic and effective for positioning in the countries. Each industry represents unique and distinctive patterns, depending on the cultural and regional context where it is established; that is why in Latin American countries the model proposed by Jenifer Aaker in the United States published in 1997 cannot be fully developed (Escobar-Farfán & Mateluna-Sánchez, 2016).

On the other hand, international trade has grown in an exponential way due to the evolution of globalization and the strategies implemented around the world; due to this negotiations are more effective (Hidalgo-Gallo, 2018). Negrete (2018) considers that states must support business strengthening in order to better compete in the international market. Pes for this reason, that within the strategies of international trade should strengthen the brand personality in companies thus managing to positively impact the perception of value not only of consumers, but of other stakeholders (Sanahuja, 2019). According to Quintero (2018) the competitiveness of international trade is measured through the level of strategies that companies implement when making themselves known in the global market, being an alternative to strengthen brand personality in international trade.

Brands have achieved a major role in the business world, as they participate directly in the process of identification, exchange and purchase decision of consumers (López-Rodríguez & Perea-Sandoval, 2017). Therefore, the concept of brand personality takes great importance when considering the perception of consumers to any brand in any country (Toldos & Guerrero, 2013).

For Zúñiga & Vásquez (2015) thanks to the identification of the appreciations that are held about the brands, these obtain a greater number of revenues, having knowledge of the experiences, perception and opinion of consumers, makes it possible to offer added value within each company. Experiences and feelings play an important role in marketing, since different features can be implemented in brands to make them more attractive and important at an international level (Hernández-Gil, Figueroa-Ramírez & Correa-Corrales, 2018).

Taking into account the above, this research proposal aims to answer the following question: What is the development of the theoretical proposals of the concept of brand personality in the Latin American international trade scenario? To answer this question, it is necessary to conceptualize the dimensions and features of brand personality as a branding activity in Latin American markets, determine the proposals that exist in Latin America regarding brand personality and its applicability in the development of international trade and finally, provide criteria for the management of branding in organizations that develop international trade activities from the strengthening of their brand personality.

Materials and methods

A study was developed with a hermeneutic approach, which is a process that seeks to analyze and interpret the literary text and whose objective is the total experience of the text through reconstruction, reflection and interpretation (Cárcamo, 2005). For Barbosa-Chacón, Barbosa Herrera & Rodríguez-Villabona (2015) the hermeneutic sustenance is a work of reading, analysis, interpretation and critical and objective understanding of information in accordance with the research objectives.

A descriptive documentary analysis was also carried out. According to Navarrete (2011), this is a technique that starts from reduced and processed qualitative data that are constructed from empirical and descriptive generalizations of the investigated reality. Documentary analysis is a technique that allows describing and representing documents in a unified way to facilitate their appreciation, through an analytical and synthetic process (Dulzaides-Iglesias & Molina-Gómez, 2004).

The search for information was carried out in open access databases such as Google and also in other databases subscribed to the ECCI university library, among which are Sciencedirect and EBSCOhost. The observation window for this descriptive analysis of documentary type will be from 1971 to the literature of the year 2020. An inquiry of scientific articles was carried out determining the search terms according to the research question and the proposed objectives; these terms will be "brand personality", "branding", and "international trade", and their various Boolean combinations, mainly AND, OR and NOT, in order to increase the relevance in the bibliographic search of these concepts. Academic databases, search engines and tools were used, which are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Tools for document analysis

Table 1

Tools for document analysis

Type of source | Source of information
Academic databases | EBSCO host Sciencedirect
Search engines and bibliographic tools | https://scholar.google.com.co

Source: Own elaboration.

Once the documentary sources were obtained, temporality and academic validation were determined as the main selection criteria, and the literature review began. The distribution of the number of sources by year of publication can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Distribution of the number of sources by year

Figure 1
Distribution of the number of sources by year

Source: Own elaboration

Thus, Figure 2 shows the participation of each of the sources of information with respect to the number of documents that contributed to the development of the literature review.

Figure 2. Participation of bibliographic sources

Figure 2
Participation of bibliographic sources

Source: Own elaboration

In the documentary process we worked on a search phase, which had as first filter the use of keywords and Boolean combinations, where 100 documents were obtained. In the second filter, the relevance of the document title was taken into account, determining 88 effective titles. For the third filter, after analyzing the summary of each of the documents, 70 texts were chosen to continue. According to the research from the relevance of the results and conclusions, 59 total documents were obtained, which were taken into account for the general structure and methodological purpose of the research, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Documentary review process

Figure 3
Documentary review process

Source: Own elaboration

Organizations are always in constant search of methods that allow them to obtain a greater possible portion of the demand, therefore the brand plays a fundamental role in the formation of a market that identifies the products and differentiates them from other similar ones (Espinosa, 2017). For Keller (1993) brands have been evolving to become a life experience for consumers, which is why the correct brand management has been acquiring greater relevance for stakeholders. A brand is any sign that is suitable to distinguish products in the market, and that is also susceptible to be represented graphically, additional brands have three characteristics, perceptibility, distinctiveness and graphic representation (Ortegón-Cortázar & Rodríguez, 2016).

Brand personality is the set of consumer personality traits that are applicable and relevant to a given brand, being transferred directly onto it (López & Santillán, 2019). For Alguacil, Parra-Camacho & Mundina (2019) the personality that each brand possesses starts from the moment the consumer begins to know information about an organization until the final product is consumed, perceiving its true value proposition. Table 2 lists various conceptual proposals on brand personality.

Table 2. Brand personality definitions

Table 2

Brand personality definitions

Author | Definition of brand personality
Keller (1993) | Brand personality tends to have a symbolic and self-expression function.
Aaker (1997) | Brand personality is a set of human characteristics that are associated to a company and directly to a brand, being part of the symbolic perspective that consumers make of it.
Kotler & Armstrong (2012) | Corresponds to the characteristics and functions that a product provides directly to the satisfaction of a consumer.
Stanton, Etzel & Walker (2000) | It is the distinctive and unique aspect that a company possesses so that the consumer has a prior perception of the expected products in relation to price and quality.
Halliday (1996) | Companies can use brand personality to create a point of differentiation between their products and those of their competitors.
Ambroise, Ferrandi, Merunka & Valette-Florence (2004) | Brand personality can help explain and predict consumer actions in the segment to be targeted.
Kapferer (1992) | Brand personality is defined as a dimension or facet of identity that a brand possesses.

Source: Own elaboration.

Ambroise, et al (2004) state that the concepts and dimensions of brand personality are created, communicated and therefore detected through physical characteristics or attitudes in the applied market. On the other hand, the perception of brand personality traits is deduced by the direct or indirect contact that consumers have with the brand (Torres & Chavez, 2015). Aaker (1997) in his study concluded that consumers in the United States observe five brand personality dimensions in products, where they are grouped by a set of facets and personality traits as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Dimensions and traits of brand personality according to Aaker (1997).

Figure 4
Dimensions and traits of brand personality according to Aaker 1997

Source: Own elaboration based on Aaker model (1997).

For González, Burillo and Burón (2018) the sincerity dimension refers to brands that are honest with their public, are down to earth, authentic and cheerful, their best weapon is frankness to gain trust and thus achieve loyalty. The main features of sincerity are being realistic, credible, honest, ethical, coherent, transparent and frank, etc. (Araya-Castillo, Etchebarne, Campos-Andaur, & Ríos, 2019). Jaramillo (2017) posits that brands that present themselves as "sincere" in personality seek to attract customers who are looking for a practical approach to the product they are buying.

The exciting dimension is the enthusiastic, creative, bold and energetic dimension so it aims to generate those emotions in individuals such as a sense of adventure (Pol, 2017). For Schlesinger, Cervera-Taulet & Miquel-Romero (2020) this dimension is exciting and seeks to attract people who want to add a sense of adventure to their lives. The traits of this dimension expose an enthusiastic, motivated, creative, active, joyful, vital, updated and bold being (Araya-Castillo, et al, 2019).

According to Salamanca and Cortes (2020) the main idea of the competence dimension is to show attributes that stand out from rival companies, so the feeling of overcoming, reliability, intelligence and success are a constant in this type of dimension. Pol (2017) exposes that competence as a dimension has traits that convey reliability, intelligence, success, responsibility, seriousness and efficiency.

Sophistication as a dimension in brand personality possesses traits such as glamour, elegance and luxury, being these, elements that transmit prestige and exclusivity (González, et al, 2018). Salamanca & Cortes (2020) assure that companies that focus on this dimension are aimed at markets with high purchasing power, therefore the products of this dimension include luxury items. Sophistication generates a very powerful association with an attractive and glamorous image, an extremely attractive profile for people who want to reflect a higher status in society (Pol, 2017).

The ruggedness dimension as exposed by Araya-Castillo, et al (2019) aims to attract the attention of customers who identify with outdoor activities, who are strong and robust. Brands that focus on this dimension are related to camping equipment, vehicles for transporting livestock and poultry machinery (Jaramillo, 2017). For Schlesinger, et al (2020) this dimension prepares the brand for any situation by having solvent outlets and leaves it with a more open view of the world.

International trade is an economic activity that is defined as the movement of goods and services through different countries and markets (Pérez, 2019). For Wolf (2014) international trade is important given that it promotes the productive development of nations generating global competition making countries become more innovative. Cardozo, Chavarro & Ramírez (2007) state that international trade is the cause and effect of globalization because it has an impact on the development of trade abroad and companies that want to internationalize their offerings.

Bhagwati (2004) states that globalization is a historical process of world integration in the economic, political, technological and commercial spheres, which allows the relationship between different countries by linking markets, as well as socioeconomic aspects. Wolf (2004) asserts that the benefits of globalization far exceed the detriments measured in terms of welfare levels and social applications of both technology and the development of new markets and their growth. It is for this reason that Krugman (2004) takes up the theories of international trade and in each of them specifies the aspects in which elements that explain its behavior are missing in order to finally propose the theory of new trade and economic geography, which corrects erroneous aspects of these theories of international trade that have been developed.

International trade theories are a very important factor, since they constitute a starting point for companies, mainly because they encourage organizations to decide where to establish their production activities (Wolf, 2014). There is a theory that states that countries should specialize in the goods and services that they are able to produce more efficiently and in turn acquire from other economies those that they produce less efficiently, production becomes practically unlimited due to free trade (Stiglitz, 2002). Therefore, Krugman, Obtfeld & Melitz (2001) explain that when labor moves from one economic sector to another, the concept of "marginal product of labor", "diminishing returns" and "frontier of possibilities" or "efficient curve", which indicate and expose the dynamics of production processes.

The Ricardian model ignores the inclusion of economies of scale as a cause of trade, which makes it ineffective in explaining large trade flows between apparently similar nations (Krugman, et al, 2001). The models applied to markets of perfect competition only analyze the comparative advantages of each nation, assuming that each country will produce the goods or services where it has a comparative advantage, and through exchange the different countries will complement each other, taking advantage of their differences in resources (Stiglitz, 2002). For this reason, Pérez (2019) suggests that when a company obtains better capital it would increase the quality of its products and/or reduce production costs.

Adam Smith's theory of competitive advantage and David Ricardo's comparative advantage have demonstrated the benefits of free trade; therefore, each country could specialize in the production of goods in which it has an absolute advantage (Cardozo, et al, 2007). Bhagwati (2004) emphasizes that even if one country has an absolute disadvantage in the production of goods with respect to the other country, and if the relative costs (or cost of a good measured in terms of the other good) are different, exchange is possible and mutually beneficial.

The theory of new trade and economic geography proposed by Paul Krugman corrects erroneous aspects of international trade theories, developed throughout economic history, and proposes correctives that explain the real behavior of international trade in the context of globalization, where the "marginal product of labor", "diminishing returns" and "frontier of possibilities" or "efficient curve" are concepts that indicate how production moves when the labor factor is dynamic (Krugman, 2004). This is based on the model of specific factors (Finger, 1971), based on the existence of production factors in addition to labor, which move among the other sectors. In addition, the existence of two strong elements that reinforce the theory was proposed: innovation and government (Porter, 1990).

It is necessary to take into account the cultural interaction in the country to be internationalized in order to maintain a competitive proposal in the international market (Torres & Chávez, 2015). In this way "competitive advantages are created and maintained by giving strength to a specific advantage which is a space to which corresponds a purely geographical and cultural concept" (Palacios-Duarte & Saavedra García, 2016, p. 22). Hence, Perez (2019) describes in competitive advantage a certain characteristic of superiority that a company or product possesses in the national and international market. According to López-Rodríguez & Pardo-Rincón (2019) international competences for a country to obtain external success must possess some characteristics: factor endowment, demand specifications, related industries and strategies, structure and competition of companies.

Results

The application of the brand personality model proposed by Aaker (1997) has been used in multiple investigations that have sought to measure how these dimensions influence the consumption of brands in different categories, such as luxury cars (Toldos & Guerrero, 2013; Saavedra, Urdaneta, Pirela & Colmenares, 2008; Rojas-Méndez, Erunchen & Silva, 2004), pharmacy chains (Colmenares & Saavedra, 2008), university institutions (Araya-Castillo & Escobar-Farfán, 2015; Denegri, et al, 2009), restaurants and fast food (Araujo, Da Rocha & Ferreira, 2013), political marketing (Araya-Castillo & Etchebarne, 2014) and in the field of services (Schlesinger & Cerverta, 2009). Therefore, the idea arises to recognize the outlook of brand personality as a branding activity in Latin American international trade.

The following is a list of the dimensions and traits of brand personality that have emerged from studies developed in Latin America in industries that support and enhance international trade. Initially, Rojas-Méndez, et al (2004) developed an exploratory research in which they applied a 42-question survey with the purpose of measuring five dimensions of Ford brand personality in the cities of Talca and Curico in Chile. This survey considered a total of 90 people. The study showed that sincerity, emotionality, competence and sophistication were the most relevant, these dimensions and traits of the brand personality of this study are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Dimensions and traits of brand personality in the Ford brand in Chile.

Table 3

Dimensions and traits of brand personality in the Ford brand in Chile

Sincerity | Emotionality | Competition | Sophistication
Friendly, cheerful, healthy, practical | Independent, cool, exciting, energetic | Confident, intelligent, confident, hard-working. | High class, glamorous, attractive, soft.

Source: own elaboration based on Rojas-Méndez, et al (2004).

On the other hand, Saavedra, et al (2008) investigated the concept of brand personality in the Venezuelan automotive market, where they developed a fieldwork where information was obtained from 400 individuals by means of an accidental non-probabilistic sampling, obtaining the following dimensions: exciting, peaceful, passionate and sincere, with their respective traits. The sectorial and national scale study showed consistency between them, which indicates the possibility of obtaining statistically valid personality dimensions for brands. The main results of this study are reflected in Table 4.

Table 4. Dimensions and traits of brand personality in the Venezuelan automotive market

Table 4

Dimensions and traits of brand personality in the Venezuelan automotive market

Sincerity | Exciting | Passionate | Pacific
Sweet, gentle, naive, enthusiastic and spiritual. | Fun and daring. | Passionate. | Centered and elegant

Source: Prepared by the authors based on Saavedra, et al (2008).

In a study on McDonald's brand personality, Hernani (2008) conducted a comparative analysis between Brazilian and Peruvian consumers, which was characterized by developing a quantitative process for data collection within the classrooms of undergraduate courses of the Management program of universities in the two countries. The sample reached was of 250 Brazilian students and 250 Peruvian students taking as criteria the 5 dimensions of Aaker (1997). The scale was applied to determine the degree of agreement that each individual attributes to the personality traits of the McDonald's brand. It was verified that there are differences in the perception of the personality of this brand in both countries as shown in Table 5 and 6, which represent the dimensions and brand personality traits identified in this study in the two geographical scenarios.

Table 5. Dimensions and traits of brand personality at McDonald's Brazil

Table 5

Dimensions and traits of brand personality at McDonald's Brazil

Leadership | Update | Attractiveness | Energy | Openness
Winner, hard-working, leader, technical, courageous, intelligent, self-confident, robust, confident, corporate, bold. | Original, unique, independent, imaginative, always up-to-date, authentic, young, contemporary. | Fascinating, modern, beautiful, attractive, seductive, lively, exciting, joyful, familiar, friendly, sentimental, high class. | Rough, masculine, feminine, calm, likes the outdoors. | Sincere, honest, trustworthy, healthy, provincial, realistic.

Source: Prepared by the authors based on Hernani (2008).

Table 6. Dimensions and traits of brand personality in McDonald's Peru

Table 6

Dimensions and traits of brand personality in McDonald's Peru

Force | Honesty | Triumph | Exclusivity | Encanto
Rough, masculine, robust, courageous. | Sincere, honest, trustworthy, healthy, confident, realistic, calm. | Winner, self-confident, intelligent, leader, contemporary, technical, corporate, hard-working. | Unique, original, authentic, imaginative, always up to date, independent, joyful, familiar. | Seductive, fascinating, outdoor enthusiast, beautiful, attractive, exciting, sentimental, lively, feminine, friendly, young, modern.

Source: Prepared by the authors based on Hernani (2008).

Olavarrieta, Friedman and Manzur (2010) conducted a research on brand personality in Chilean companies from a pilot study made with 60 people, in order to identify brands with higher recall in a variety of products. The results are quite consistent with the original study by Aaker (1997) but with one difference, and that is the appearance of a sixth dimension of brand personality called "tradition", which represents the need of Chileans to express the traditionalism of their culture. The main results are shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Dimensions and traits of brand personality in Chilean firms

Table 7

Dimensions and traits of brand personality in Chilean firms

Sincerity | Emotionality | Competition | Sophistication | Rudeza | Traditional
Delicate, feminine, sincere, spiritual. | Original, imaginative, sentimental, childish, happy, entertaining, tender. | Intelligent, technological, hard-working, serious, honest, fresh, beautiful, exquisite. | Exclusive, distinguished, high class, glamorous, attractive, wonderful. | Rough, tough, masculine, cool, risky, daring, liberal. | Classic, traditional, confident, reliable.

Source: own elaboration based on Olavarrieta, et al (2010).

Similarly, Table 8 summarizes the brand personality dimensions and traits of several North American firms with a commercial presence in Argentina. Rojas-Méndez & Papadopoulos (2012) conducted a descriptive study in that country with a sample of the general population to identify the most common personality traits. The results indicate that Argentines' perceptions of US brand personality encompass a bipolar personality type, US brand personality is a multidimensional construct composed of four main dimensions which are agreeableness, wit, neuroticism and spirit, concluding that the emerging brand personality scale is a significant predictor of Argentines' behavioral intentions towards the United States.

Table 8. Dimensions and traits of brand personality in North American firms with commercial presence in Argentina.

Table 8

Dimensions and traits of brand personality in North American firms with commercial presence in Argentina

Friendly | Ingenious | Neurotic | Energetic
Hospitable, kind, welcoming, beautiful, calm, quiet, patient, modest. | Energetic, dynamic, optimistic, forward-looking, sophisticated, wise, sociable. | Rude, unpleasant, reserved, mean, authoritarian, aggressive, fierce. | Cheerful, lively, charismatic, cool.

Source: Prepared by the authors based on Rojas-Méndez & Papadopoulos (2012).

Goñi, Torres & Aguilera (2013) conducted an investigation to identify the dimensions of brand personality in Mexico and the traits of each one of them, and compare them with the dimensions obtained in the United States and Chile, the above using a sample of 360 people over 18 years of age and the self-administered questionnaire was applied in the neighborhoods of the sixteen delegations of the Federal District and five municipalities of the State of Mexico, where 6 dimensions were identified for this country that were verified through the Cronbach's Alpha reliability test, which were quite similar to Aaker's study (1997), although the main difference is the appearance of a sixth dimension: "spontaneity", since this responds to the characteristics of Mexican culture: enthusiastic, cheerful, festive, self-confident, friendly. The above is supported in Table 9.

Table 9. Dimensions and traits of the brand personality in Mexico

Table 9

Dimensions and traits of the brand personality in Mexico

Sincerity | Enthusiasm | Competition | Sophistication | Rudeza | Spontaneity
frank, gentle, sympathetic, sentimental, tasty, emotional, family oriented, family-oriented | Youthful, young, resistant, sporty, dynamic, entertaining. | Innovative, versatile, efficient, competent, competitive, professional, executive, formal, technological, strong, capable, interesting. | Distinguished, elegant, exclusive, sensual, seductive, vain, vain | Tough, rough, parochial. | Independent, intelligent, imaginative, down-to-earth, current, self-confident, cheerful, friendly, daring.

Source: prepared by the authors based on Goñi, et al (2013).

Another different scenario regarding the aforementioned concept is proposed by Escobar-Farfán, Gallardo-Canales & Flores-Salas (2017) by proposing a model on dimensions and traits of brand personality in the Chilean pension system. They used an exploratory methodology using qualitative tools to determine the existence of traits and dimensions, where the presence of 38 traits in the pension system industry was evidenced, of which there are attributes specific to the sector, specifically the dimensions of transparency and ambition, which are complemented by five dimensions previously described by Aaker (1997), the above evidenced in Table 10.

Table 10. Dimensions and traits of the brand personality in the Chilean pension system

Table 10

Dimensions and traits of the brand personality in the Chilean pension system

Ambition | Transparency | Competition | Sophistication
Interested, supportive, generous, opportunistic and ambitious. | Transparent, fair, ethical and truthful. | Successful, competitive, entrepreneurial, negotiators and leaders. | Attractive, elitist, sophisticated, charming, glamorous and wealthy.
Rudeza | Emotionality | Sincerity |
Rough, structured, masculine, strong, resistant, feminine and dominant. | Social, energetic, lively, exciting, adventurous and young. | Honest, sincere, trustworthy, loyal and reliable. |

Source: own elaboration based on Escobar-Farfán, et al (2017).

Muller & Zancan (2012) propose the brand personality model in Brazilian companies, and its main result is shown in Table 11. Such study was conducted in exploratory stages, starting with a preparatory stage conducted by professionals and academics in the fields of communication and marketing. This was followed by conclusive research stages using an online survey with a sample of 1302 consumers. The study led to a 28-item scale to measure brand personality and made it possible to compare competing brands in terms of brand personality. These dimensions showed some differences compared to similar studies that had been carried out in other countries

This research allowed for a better understanding of the perception that consumers have of the brands available in the Brazilian market, which identified the dimensions of brand personality labeled as credibility, joy, boldness, sophistication and sensitivity; these dimensions reflect some cultural values found in the context of this country and are transferred to the brands through their products, advertising and general behavior.

Table 11. Dimensions and traits of brand personality in Brazilian companies.

Table 11

Dimensions and traits of brand personality in Brazilian companies

Credibility | Joy | Audacity | Sophistication | Sensitivity
Responsible, reliable, trustworthy, confident, correct, respectable, loyal, consistent. | Cool, happy, festive, outgoing, fun, kind, playful, | Modern, daring, updated. | Chic, elegant, high-class, sophisticated, glamorous | Romantic, delicate, sensitive, charming.

Source: own elaboration based on Muller & Zancan (2012).

Table 12 summarizes the dimensions and brand personality traits of different Chilean pharmacy chains proposed by Colmenares & Saavedra (2008). This research adopted an accidental non-probabilistic sampling to total 295 samples through the application of a questionnaire via personal interviews. The results obtained validated the possibility of obtaining stable brand personality dimensions for a selection of products and/or services on a small scale, confirming that Aaker's (1997) model is not generalizable worldwide. Likewise, it was possible to demonstrate that dimensions such as sincerity, emotion and passivity are denoted in Brazil.

Table 12. Dimensions and traits of brand personality in pharmacy chains in Chile.

Table 12

Dimensions and traits of brand personality in pharmacy chains in Chile

Sincerity | Exciting | Passivity
Honest. | Current, enthusiastic and charming | Practical

Source: Prepared by the authors based on Colmenares & Saavedra (2008).

Finally, Table 13 summarizes the impact that the application of the brand personality model has had on the Latin American international trade environment, identifying that, although the original brand personality model proposed by Aaker (1997) is applicable worldwide, in Latin America there is a different reality, since in an internationalization plan for a company and/or products it is of utmost importance to differentiate the personality dimensions of the Latin American country, as this may be the key to total commercial success.

The use of different methodological scopes such as exploratory, descriptive, correlational and explanatory can be seen in the different researches mentioned, determining new dimensions for brand personality in the different sectors of Latin American countries; for each country a different dimension was identified. Chile stood out for leaning towards emotionality and tradition, Brazil highlighted dimensions more focused on attractiveness, updating and credibility, Argentina has more bipolar facets ranging from energetic, neurotic and ingenious, Mexico prefers the credibility of companies and likewise Peru highlights a new dimension focused on triumph.

Table 13. Application of the brand personality model by country, type of research, technique and economic sector studied.

Table 13

Application of the brand personality model by country type of research technique and economic sector studied

Author | Country | Type of research | Technique used | Economic sector or industry | Identified brand personality dimensions
Rojas-Méndez, et al (2004) | Chile | Exploratory | Exploratory factor analysis | Automotive sector | Sincerity, emotionality, competence and sophistication.
Saavedra, et al (2008) | Venezuela | Correlational | Factor analysis and correlational analysis | Automotive sector | Exciting, Peaceful, Passionate, and Sincere.
Hernani (2008) | Brazil | Exploratory | Exploratory factor analysis | Academic sector | Leadership, Updating, Attractiveness, Energy, Openness.
Hernani (2008) | Peru | Exploratory | Exploratory factor analysis | Academic Sector | Strength, Honesty, Triumph, Exclusivity, Charm.
Olavarrieta, et al (2010) | Chile | Correlational | Correlational analysis | Business sector | Sincerity, Emotionality, Competence, Sophistication, Rudeness, Traditional.
Rojas-Méndez & Papadopoulos (2012) | Argentina | Exploratory | Exploratory factor analysis | U.S. firms in Argentina. | Friendly, Witty, Neurotic, Energetic. .
Goñi, et al (2013) | Mexico | Descriptive | Internal reliability analysis of factors | Mexican population over 18 years of age. | Sincerity, Enthusiasm, Competence, Sophistication, Rude, Spontaneity.
Escobar-Farfán, et al, (2017). | Chile | Exploratory | Exploratory factor analysis | Pension system. | Ambition Transparency, Competence, Sophistication
Muller & Zancan (2012). | Brazil | Exploratory | Exploratory factor analysis | Business sector | Credibility, Joy, Audacity, Sophistication, Sensitivity.
Colmenares & Saavedra (2008). | Chile | Explanatory | Factor analysis | Pharmaceuticals | Sincerity, Emotional, Passivity.

Source: own elaboration.

Discussion

The literature review that was carried out made it possible to recognize the theoretical proposals of the concept of brand personality existing in the Latin American business scenario, investigating its dimensions and features that allow strengthening the construction of their brands in the markets of the region, especially for organizations related to international trade activities, whose value proposition must transcend from the various dimensions existing in their products to the functional, symbolic and emotional perceptions that potential markets may have of the brands (Neme-Chaves & López-Rodríguez, 2021).

For companies it is important to implement a value proposition that allows them to increase their competitiveness in international markets based on the traits that external consumers can associate between the nature of the brands and their human behavior, being this the genesis of the concept of brand personality; however, in several studies reviewed (López-Rodríguez & Neme-Chaves, 2021; Rojas-Mendez, et al, 2004; Colmenares & Saavedra, 2008; Araya-Castillo & Escobar-Farfán, 2015; Denegri, et al, 2009; Araujo, et al, 2013; Araya-Castillo & Etchebarne, 2014; Schlesinger & Cerverta, 2009) brand personality dimensions and traits different from those proposed by Aaker (1997) were observed, hence the relevance of being able to identify models in line with the sociocultural realities associated with the consumption of goods and services specific to the Latin American market, without assuming that this model of U.S. origin may possess the same perception in Latin America.

The theoretical proposals that exist in Latin America regarding brand personality in the development of international trade are represented by various authors: Rojas-Méndez, et al (2004) who generated a model for an international brand that markets vehicles in Chile; Saavedra et al (2008) investigated the concept of brand personality in the Venezuelan automotive market; Hernani (2008) from the comparative analysis between Brazilian and Peruvian consumers of the McDonald's brand; Rojas-Méndez & Papadopoulos (2012) studied the perception of brand personality of American firms with commercial presence in Argentina. From the above, it highlights the need to develop a brand identity to make it effective in the country in which the organization wants to position itself, strengthening its internationalization strategy through branding.

Conclusions

The methodological development and documentary analysis was assertive to the extent that the objectives set in the development of the research were achieved since the dimensions and features of brand personality found as a branding activity in Latin American markets were conceptualized; the proposals that could be determined in the criteria for branding management were described. The results obtained from the research provide knowledge, being consistent with the literature reviewed, since it allows to evidence the different theoretical proposals of brand personality existing in the scenario of Latin American international trade.

Based on the findings, research proposals are made to propose existing brand personality models in different economic activities related to international trade and its specific activities, identifying dimensions and features of brand personality, both desired by the organizations and perceived by their stakeholders, especially by consumers. This would provide branding tools and judgments on consumer behavior to entrepreneurs to strengthen their brand in external geographic scenarios, which would enhance their value proposition and strengthen their international presence.

References

Aaker, J. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34, 347-356.

Ahmad, A. & Thyagaraj, K. (2014). Applicability of brand personality dimensions across cultures and product categories: A review. Global Journal of Finance and Management, 6(1), 9-18.

Alguacil, M., Parra-Camacho, D., & Mundina, C. (2019). Brand personality for loyalty enhancement in sport services: the role of congruence. Euroamerican Journal of Sport Sciences, 51-56.

Ambroise, L.; Ferrandi, J. M.; Merunka, D. & Valette-Florence, P. (2004). "How Well Does Brand Personality Predict Brand Choice? A Measurement Scale and Analysis Using Binary Regression Models," Asian Pacifi c Advance in Consumer Research, Vol. 6, pp. 30-38.

Araujo, F., Da Rocha, A. & Ferreira, J. (2013). Brand personality of Global Quick-Service Restaurants in emerging and developed markets: A comparative study in Brazil and the U.S. Latin American Business Review, 14, 139-161.

Araya-Castillo, L. & Etchebarne, S. (2014). Brand personality of political parties: proposed model. Folios Journal, 40, 67-89.

Araya-Castillo, L., Etchebarne, S., Campos-Andaur, P., & Ríos, G. V. (2019). Firefighter brand personality: a model proposal. Business Dimension, 17(1), 90-114.

Araya-Castillo, L. & Escobar-Farfán, M. (2015). Brand personality of business schools in Chile: Model proposal. Revista Ad-minister, 27, 53-73.

Barbosa-Chacón, J. W., Barbosa-Herrera, J. C., & Rodríguez-Villabona, M. (2015). Concept, approach and justification of the systematization of educational experiences: A look" from" and" for" the context of university education. Perfiles educativos, 37(149), 130-149.

Bhagwati, J. N. (2004). Anti-globalization: why? Journal of Policy Modeling, 26(3), 439-463.

Buil, I., De Chernatony, L., & Martínez, E. (2013). The importance of measuring brand equity from the consumer perspective: Empirical evidence in Spain and the United Kingdom. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), 19(2), 226-237.

Cárcamo, H. (2005). Hermeneutics and qualitative analysis. Moebio Tape. Journal of Social Science Epistemology, (23).

Cardozo, P. P., Chavarro, A., & Ramírez, C. A. (2007). Theories of internationalization. Panorama, 1(3), 2.

Colmenares, O. & Saavedra, J. (2008). Dimensions of brand personality, Case study: drugstore chains. Revista Venezolana de Gerencia (RVG), 13(42), 220-232.

Denegri, M., Cabezas, D., Herrera, V., Páez, A., & Vargas, M. (2009). Brand personality of psychology majors at state universities in Chile: A descriptive study. IIPSI Journal, 12 (2), 13-23.

Díaz, I., Rodríguez, S. & Lujan, G. (2019). Logic of Latin American structuralism in Colombia. Analysis of the deficit in maritime transport. Revista UNIANDES Episteme, 6(1), 3-23.

Dulzaides-Iglesias, M. E., & Molina-Gómez, A. M. (2004). Documentary and information analysis: two components of the same process. Acimed, 12(2), 1-1.

Escobar-Farfán, M., & Mateluna-Sánchez, C. (2016). Modelos De Personalidad De Marca: Una Descripción De 1997 a 2015 (Characterizing Brand Personality Models During the Period 1997-2015). Revista Academia & Negocios, 2(2).

Escobar-Farfán, M., Gallardo-Canales, R., & Flores-Salas, J. (2017). Brand Personality Traits: The Chilean Pension Fund Administrators Case (Rasgos de Personalidad de Marca: El Caso de las AFP en Chile). RAN-Revista Academia & Negocios, 3(2).

Escobar-Farfán, M., Mateluna-Sánchez, C., & Araya-Castillo, L. (2016). Evolution and description of brand personality models in Latin America. Dimensión empresarial, 14(2), 91-113.

Espinosa, D. B. (2017). Scent marks in Colombia. Intangible Prop. Rev., 24, 95.

Finger, J. M. (1971). Factor Proportions, Comparative Advantage and Edgeworth's Logarithmic Scale. Southern Economic Journal, 105-108.

Goñi, N., Torres, E., & Aguilera, S. (2013). Dimensions of brand personality. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (RCS), XIX (2), 213-225.

González, B. P., Burillo, P., & Burón, A. S. (2018). Perception of brand personality in sporting goods in Spanish university students. Euroamerican Journal of Sport Sciences, 7(1), 71-80.

Halliday, J. (1996). Chrysler brings out brand personalities with '97 ads. Advertising Age, 67(40), 3-4.

Hernández-Gil, C., Figueroa-Ramírez, E. F., & Correa-Corrales, L. E. (2018). Brand repositioning: the road to competitiveness for small and medium-sized enterprises. Journal of Research, Development and Innovation, 9(1), 33-46.

Hernani, M. (2008). Perception of global brand personality and values: a comparative study between Brazilian and Peruvian consumers. Accounting and Business, 3(5), 44-54.

Hidalgo-Gallo, R. (2018). Trends in international trade in goods, trade policies and multilateral negotiations. Economics and Development, 159(1), 135-153.

Jaramillo, C. (2017). Cross-cultural perception of the brand personality of Redbull energy drink (Undergraduate thesis) Universidad del Azuay: Cuenca, Ecuador.

Kapferer, J. N. (1992). Strategic Brand Management, Free Press. New York and Kogan Page.

Keller, K. L. (1993). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity. Journal of marketing, 57(1), 1-22.

Kotler, P. & Armstrong, G. (2012). Marketing. Fourteenth. Edición. Mexico Pearson Educación.

Krugman, (2004). International Economics. Fifth edition, Editorial Prentice Hall.

Krugman, P., Obstfeld, M. & Melitz, M. J. (2001). International economics. Madrid: Pearson Education.

López-Rodríguez, C. E., & Perea-Sandoval, J. A. (2017). The brand manager as a protagonist in organizations in Colombia. Equity and Development, 1(28), 259-278.

López, E. Y. & Santillán, A. G. (2019). Determinants of brand personality. an empirical study in veracruz scenarios. Landmarks of economic-administrative sciences, (70), 639-651.

López-Rodríguez, C. E., Cristancho-Triana, G. J., & Amaya-Téllez, J. L. (2020). Perception and desired brand personality in organizations that internationalize services: The case of the Colombian business environment. European Research Studies, 23(3), 581-597.

López-Rodríguez, C. E. & Pardo-Rincón, S. D. (2019). Land freight transport in international trade. Comparative analysis between Bogotá, Colombia and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia. Ensayos de economía, 29(54), 89-114.

López-Rodríguez, C. E., & Neme-Chaves, S. R. (2021). Employer branding in organizations that internationalize logistics operation services in Bogotá Colombia. Contaduría y Administración, 66(2), 1-22.

Merino, M. (2008). Perception of global brand personality and values: a comparative study between Brazilian and Peruvian consumers. Contabilidad y Negocios: Revista del Departamento Académico de Ciencias Administrativas, 3(5), 44-54.

Muller, K. & Zancan, R. (2012). Brand Personality Dimensions in the Brazilian Context. Brazilian Administration Review, 9(2), 168-188.

Navarrete, J. V. (2011). Central problems of qualitative data analysis. Revista latinoamericana de metodología de la investigación social, (1), 47-60.

Negrete, J. D. (2018). Colombia's trade agreements: Impacts on trade balance and foreign direct investment. Desarrollo Gerencial, 10(1), 48-63.

Neme-Chaves, S. R., & López-Rodríguez, C. E. (2021). Employer branding: an exploration of the knowledge field from bibliometric indicators. Suma de Negocios, 12(26), 83-92.

Olavarrieta, S., Friedmann, R., & Manzur, E. (2010). Brand personality in Chile: a combined emic approach. Estudios de Administración, 17(1), 25-50.

Ortegón-Cortázar, L., & Rodríguez, A. (2016). Sensory marketing management on consumer experience. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), 22(3), 67-83.

Palacios-Duarte, P. D. & Saavedra-García, M. L. (2016). Export Performance and Innovation as a Growth Strategy for SMEs in Mexico. Mexican Journal of Economics and Finance, 11(2), 21-38.

Pérez, V. H. (2019). Neoliberal economic adjustment, an instrument at the service of the transnationalization of the Latin American economy. Revista Economía y Desarrollo (Impresa), 134(2).

Pirela, J., Villavicencio, H., & Saavedra, J. (2004). Dimensions of brand personality: An exploratory study in Venezuela. Universidad de Zulia 10(3), 430-440.

Pol, A. (2017). Branding and visual brand personality. RIDE. Iberoamerican Journal for Educational Research and Development, 1(1), 5-20.

Porter, M. E. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. Harvard business review, 68(2), 73-93.

Quintero, M. I. (2018). Collaborative economies, new consumption trends and challenges for Latin America and Colombia. Campos en Ciencias Sociales, 6(2), 95-118.

Rojas-Mendez, J. & Papadopoulos, N. (2012). Argentine Consumers' perceptions of the U.S. Brand personality. Latin American Business Review, 13, 329-345.

Rojas-Méndez, J., Erunchen, I., & Silva, E. (2004). The Ford Brand Personality in Chile. Corporate Reputation Review, 7(3), 232-251.

Saavedra, J. L. San Martín, H. A. & Torres, J. L. (2004). Dimensions of brand personality. An exploratory study in Venezuela. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), 10(3), 430-440.

Saavedra, J., Urdaneta, D., Pirela, J, & Colmenares, O. (2008). Measuring brand personality in the automotive market. Visión gerencial, 7(1), 183-196.

Salamanca, P. I. & Cortés, L. Q. (2020). Customer perception towards local brands: Case of the Lila Land Brand. International Competitiveness Researchers Network, 13, 395-416.

Jones, W. R. (1971). A three factor model in theory, trade, and history. Trade, balance of payments and growth, 3-21.

Sanahuja, J. A. (2019). Regionalist strategies in a changing world: latin america and regional integration. Carolina Foundation Note, 451.

Schlesinger, W. & Cerverta, A. (2009). Nature and dimensionality of brand personality in the service domain. Administrative Technique, 8(39).

Schlesinger, W., Cervera Taulet, A., & Miquel Romero, M. J. (2020). How does the sponsorship of a high involvement sport event mark the sponsoring brand? Application to the case of public institutions. Cuadernos de Gestión, 20(2), 123-148.

Stanton, W., Etzel, M., & Walker, B. (2000). Fundamentals of Marketing. Mexico: McGraw-Hill.

Stiglitz, J. E. (2002). Information and the paradigm shift in economic science. RAE: Revista Asturiana de Economía, (25), 95-164.

Toldos, M., & Guerrero, M. (2013). The effect of brand personality dimensions on the purchase intention of luxury brands in Mexico and Brazil. Global Conference on Business and Finance Proceedings, 8(2), 837-842.

Torres, A. I. & Chávez, J. C. (2015). Competitiveness of customs administration in the framework of international trade. Contaduría y administración, 60(1), 205-228.

Wolf, M. (2004). Globalisation and interdependence. Address to UN Outubro. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/esa/documents/un.oct.2004.globalisation.and.interdepence.pdf

Zúñiga, M. & Vásquez, C. (2015). Analysis of the city brand as a strengthening of the image of the canton of Portoviejo. DELOS Journal Local Sustainable Development. IS